Alongside its civilian impact, the intensification of the Israeli-Hezbollah conflict after October 2023 had grave consequences for the environment. This post by Rob Watson and Jay Lindle details preliminary CEOBS research undertaken on behalf of Norwegian People’s Aid and which provided examples of conflict-linked environmental harm in Lebanon.
Introduction
Following October 2023, the Israeli-Hezbollah conflict led to devastating humanitarian and environmental consequences in southern Lebanon and the wider region. According to the World Bank, it is estimated that $221 million of damage has been caused to Lebanon’s environment alone through natural resource degradation and the impact on solid waste management. Agricultural losses are estimated at more than $1 billion due to the destruction of crops and livestock and the displacement of farmers. Some of these direct consequences were evident in media reports showing extensive fires across agricultural land and widespread damage to buildings and essential infrastructure. However, there are also longer term reverberating consequences for the environment that require further research to evaluate their full impacts. Identifying and conducting further research in these areas is essential for Lebanon’s recovery.
CEOBS undertook a preliminary scoping study of environmental harm in southern Lebanon in collaboration with Norwegian People’s Aid (NPA). Incidents and damage that occurred between the 7th October 2023 and the 5th December 2024 were examined. This was done to help inform future on-the-ground monitoring, as well as considerations for non-technical surveys and operational and potential environmental risks linked to field and clearance mine action activities.
Urban damage where critical environmental infrastructure is impacted
A combination of open data sources was examined to identify potentially damaged critical environmental infrastructure.1 A preliminary list of facilities was identified by combining building polygons compiled by the Humanitarian OpenStreetMap Team ((HOT) and synthetic aperture radar (SAR) damage maps.2 This produced an initial longlist of 173 damaged building polygons with tags that could be classified as potential environmental hazards; the list includes petrol stations, wastewater treatment plants and warehouses.3
Tyre in southern Lebanon is an example of an urban area that has sustained considerable damage. This coastal city was home to around 135,000 people prior to the war, and contains several sites of significant cultural and environmental interest. This includes a 380 hectare Ramsar designated protected area on Tyre Beach that is thought to be an important nesting area for turtles, and is itself part of a much larger Key Biodiversity Area. The main water distribution facility in Tyre was severely damaged on 18th November 2024, and when residents returned to their homes after the ceasefire was declared, many had lost access to running water.
Israeli airstrikes on Tyre have caused serious damage across the city. Large ordnance craters have been documented across the city and district,4 and some have now filled with seawater. The intruding seawater will mix with the pollutants within the crater, enabling them to migrate through soil and subsurface water. The range of contaminants will depend on the munition type and damage caused.
The scale and extent of pollution from explosive ordnance stored in informal weapons dumps is challenging to assess due to risks around disinformation.5 An initial study of social media posts suggests that many such dumps have been struck,6 with significant potential for environmental damage that warrants further assessment.
Identification of rubble locations with potential asbestos exposure risks
Israeli attacks on Lebanese territory produced significant volumes of debris. A report by UN Habitat estimated the volume of debris for the South and Nabatieh Governorates alone to be more than 8 million tonnes, while a separate report by researchers at the American University of Beirut (AUB) suggested an upper limit of around 100 million tonnes. This variability highlights that estimates of debris volumes should be treated with caution and reviewed.
Currently available data did not allow an assessment of the likely volumes of asbestos containing materials (ACM) and other toxic substances within this debris. However, visual assessments of debris generated in Beirut in the aftermath of the Beirut Port blast in 2020 found asbestos mixed in with other construction and demolition waste throughout the affected area. Data for 1997 show that Lebanon imported around 6,000 tonnes of asbestos in that year alone, while domestic production stood at more than 900 tonnes annually in 2000. Additionally, Lebanon’s legal framework regulating the use of asbestos is limited.7 This indicates a high likelihood for ACM to be present within building debris generated by the Israeli attacks and a risk of exposure to asbestos fibres, especially during debris handling, sorting, transport and disposal. The occupational and environmental health effects linked to exposure to asbestos fibres are well documented, and include lung cancer, mesothelioma, cancer of the larynx and ovary, and asbestosis.
There is a high likelihood that other environmentally toxic and persistent contaminants are present within the building debris.8 This may include a wide range of chemicals from coatings, plastics, paints, adhesives and waterproofing,9 as well from battery storage units and solar panels, damaged vehicles, fuel storage and contaminants from the use of explosive ordnance. Solar panels are present on the roofs of many residential properties in Lebanon and many households rely on private diesel generators for electricity. Even within residential areas, contaminants and environmentally hazardous materials can be present in building debris.
Environmental risks from incendiary weapons use in southern Lebanon
Reports of the use of White Phosphorus (WP) had been commonplace in southern Lebanon since October 2023. Through a network of volunteers and a local environmental NGO, Green Southerners, videos were frequently uploaded to social media. When WP is used, its distinctive smoke plume is often visible. Ahmad Baydoun, a PhD researcher at TU Delft, geolocated the use of WP and produced an online map.
The data shows that as of December 2024, there were 195 verified incidents of WP use in southern Lebanon with most detonated munitions in Meiss El Jabal (28). Other settlements with more than 10 recorded munitions used include: Kfar Kila (20), Al Khiam (17), Yaroun (15), Houla (14) and Aadaisse (14). The vast majority of these incidents occurred close to the border with Israel, which immediately identifies areas of higher pollution risk to both the local population and the environment. This area stretches from Chebaa in the east to Labboune in the far southwestern corner of Lebanon. No social media reports were found for most incidents, and it is assumed that our study vastly underestimated the total use of WP. Two-thirds of the verified occurrences took place between October 2023 and February 2024; the reduction in data points is most likely explained by residents being displaced from these border villages and footage no longer being captured.
The figure below shows geolocated WP usage close to Meiss El Jabal and Houla overlaid with burnt area data from the European Forest Fire Information System (EFFIS). It shows that a large number of WP munitions were used in the north east of Meiss El Jabal, with significant stretches of burnt areas between the settlements, compounding risks to remaining residents from airborne contaminants. WP usage can only partly explain the burnt areas, there may be other incendiary weapons or munitions used that led to fires. Also, given the bias in the dataset towards the latter part of 2023 and early 2024, it is highly likely there are instances of WP use that are unaccounted for and that cannot be correlated with the significant wildfires that took place over the summer months, as shown in the Sentinel-2 imagery. These fires are likely enhanced by drier vegetation and higher temperatures compared to the winter months.
Landscape fires resulting from the use of WP and other weapons are likely to have numerous longer-term negative effects on the environment. The Lebanese environment minister, Nasser Yassin, estimated that c.5 km2 was burnt directly from WP, c.10% of the total burnt area. The figure below shows some of the usage and impacts of WP around Meiss El Jabal and Houla. The suspected Israeli WP shell illustrated matches those identified by an Amnesty International investigation. These fires have destroyed olive farms along with significant grasslands that provide habitats for biodiversity. The fires reduce available habitat space and generally place greater pressure on southern Lebanon’s protected areas.
The oxidation of WP leaves phosphoric acid in the uppermost parts of the soil column, increasing its acidity, potentially reducing the agricultural yield. Elevated total phosphorus in soil can also constrain plant growth, and present a risk to nearby water bodies by leaching and causing eutrophication and algal blooms. WP ignites and normally fully oxidises when exposed to air. If the WP remains in water or buried in soil with low oxygen levels, it may not fully oxidise, and thus poses a continued risk to people and wildlife. In water, high concentrations of WP can lead to bioaccumulation in fish and birds of prey.
Landscape fires initiated by the use of munitions including WP have caused extensive fire damage within areas important for agriculture and nature. Damage of this type can impact soil and water quality, burn soil organic matter, affect nutrient cycles and soil health, and accelerate rates of erosion. Future mine action activities in areas impacted from the use of incendiary weapons can support local farmers and communities in understanding potential risks, and implement land use practices and soil improvement measures where soil quality and habitats have been impacted.
As with incendiary weapons, the use of explosive ordnance can also trigger landscape fires, as well as damaging and disrupting soils, increasing erosion rates and causing changes in vegetation types. To give some early indications of the extent of this problem, and to assess the potential of remote methodologies, we undertook an initial crater mapping assessment in southern Lebanon using optical satellite imagery. Crater scars are easier to detect in heavily vegetated rural locations where the visible contrast between the landscape and the crater scar is greatest. In urban areas the large amounts of debris from destroyed buildings causes greater reflectance in the visible imagery and the craters are more difficult to identify. Assessments of crater density could help inform clearance activities as well as identifying areas where remedial activities could help protect soils.
Conclusion
Our preliminary study highlighted the range of environmental hazards present in Lebanon as a result of the armed conflict, which saw a significant escalation in southern Lebanon in the latter half of 2024. This includes widespread urban damage, including the destruction of critical infrastructure, which in turn has generated millions of tonnes of debris. Conflict debris is likely to contain hazardous materials such as ACM and other toxic contaminants. Incendiary weapons such as WP and other munitions led to widespread landscape fires that will have lasting consequences for agricultural areas and natural habitats. Further research is needed to quantify the risks to people, livelihoods and ecosystems in areas affected by the conflict.
Rob Watson and Jay Lindle are Junior Researchers at CEOBS, this scoping work was undertaken in support of Norwegian People’s Aid’s programme in Lebanon.