- From 1990-outbreak of current
hostilities
1.1 Water supply
Before 1990, water facilities and distribution networks were well equipped and adequately manned. Following the Gulf War, the water system deteriorated rapidly. The national water and sanitation budget was cut to 10% of its pre-war level. Performance efficiencies of Water Treatment Plants (WTP) fell from 80% to below 40% by 1997. The water distribution networks experienced water losses to 40%. While access to potable water in cities stayed relatively constant (92% in 2000), in rural areas access was halved, to 44%.
In centre/south of Iraq the implementation of the Oil-For-Food Programme (OFFP) from 1997, halted the deterioration, with Water Treatment Plant (WTP) efficiency gradually improving to over 60 and water losses reduced to 30%. Water tankering remained a key element of water supply to semi-urban and rural communities not connected to national supply systems. Tankers sourced water from compact units (CUs - smaller 'containerised' water treatment plants). In some places (there is no reliable information about where or how many) rural communities were also dependent upon unprotected sources.
In the three northern governorates, OFFP-funded programmes have bolstered water services considerably. Urban areas are supplied through WTPs in key locations. As well, the north is well endowed with natural water sources: springs and underground water provide the main source of drinking water for households in rural areas. In some cases springs and wells require only chlorination. While access to such sources is relatively good, the region is vulnerable to droughts, and water quality remains a concern.
A key constraint of the OFFP in the 15 centre/south governorates was that it supplied only components and equipment - it was unable to provide cash to regional authorities. Implementation of activities was often slowed by the Governments' inability to pay contractors and supply services not covered by OFFP1.
Water quality has remained a concern throughout the period. Raw water is pumped from surface waters, including the rivers Euphrates and Tigris. Both rivers have very high dissolved solids (TDS)2. Water quality from treatment plants is assured through treatment of the raw water with coagulants, and dosing the filtered water with disinfectants such as chlorine gas. In Basrah, Missan and Thi-Qar, the water has also to be desalinated before it is fit for human consumption. Regulations for OFFP meant that procurement of some of these chemicals - instrumental for improving water quality - had to be approved by the relevant sanction committee established pursuant to UNSCR 661 (the 661 Committee). Water quality will have been affected negatively by lack of sufficient treatment supplies.
The health of the water supply system in urban areas in Iraq is linked closely to power supply, which also dramatically deteriorated following the Gulf war. To minimise the effect of power cuts, WTPs serving major cities in the centre/south were connected to dedicated power-lines and have standby generators. The smaller CUs, however, do not have dedicated lines and rely almost solely on generators, which are prone to breakdown. Most CUs are managed by communities, and limited technical manpower and frequent power shortages limit their performance to 40%3.
1.2 Sanitation
In 1990, sewerage systems in the cities of the center/south served just over 25% of the population. Septic tanks were used by 50% of people, and the remaining 25% had no means of safe disposal of sewage. The 23 sewerage treatment plants (STPs) were functioning very efficiently. However, after the Gulf War the entire system broke down: as with WTPs, a result of lack of maintenance, spare parts and sufficient skilled staff.
The sanitation sub-sector has benefited only minimally from OFFP because of the limited number of contracts submitted for this sector and because of concerns on the possible dual-use of some items and STPs have continued to deteriorate. In 2002, it was estimated that 17 sewage treatment plants needed urgent rehabilitation and that 500,000m3/day of untreated sewage was dumped into fresh water sources. Comparable recent data to the above 1990 figures on access to sanitation is not available.
In the north, Sulaymaniyah is the only city of the northern governorate that has a sewerage system. In Erbil city, only water drainage is available. In other areas, communities rely on septic tanks and latrines.
2. Impact of the current hostilities
A complete picture of the impact of hostilities on the sector is difficult to obtain while key cities remain out of reach owing to insecurity. We do know, however, from the limited information gathered by agencies such as UNICEF, ICRC and some NGOs, that the hostilities are exacerbating the problems of the water and sanitation sector in key cities such as Baghdad and Basrah. Key problems in the cities, where electricity supply has been seriously disrupted, fuel supplies have been erratic, security has prevented staff from attending work to maintain and repair WTPs, and bombing has damaged key plant and infrastructure.
The implications of disrupted water supply for the health and the nutrition sector are perhaps most worrying. Most immediately, key hospitals in large cities were dependent upon ad hoc repair work by national UN staff and ICRC to keep water flowing.
Baghdad City - By 5 April, the ring-water distribution system was supplying a maximum of 70 litres/person/day of water (50% of the pre-war availability) to the 5 million Baghdad city inhabitants owing to war damage. On 9 April the Qanat raw water pumping station has ceased to function. Looting after the coalition forces took Baghdad resulted in disappearance of Government stocks from the warehouses. There has been a general shortage of fuel to service generators for water treatment plants and other facilities. By 20 April, water was again flowing to virtually all parts of Baghdad, but there remain weaknesses in the systems, and quality issues.
Basrah - Shortages of water are reported in Basrah governorate, and many villages are in dire need of drinking water. In Basrah city, 4 out of 8 water treatment plants and the raw water pumping station were damaged. Since 10 April, the water supply from the main treatment plant has stabilised but initial testing of the water quality shows high levels of nickel and bacteria. As of 12 April, power and water supplies to the city were partly operational, but intensive looting of water and sanitation supplies has seriously affected water supply to households.
In Umm Qasr, the UN humanitarian assessment mission on 4 April reported water shortage that dates from before the war (the town used to be supplied with water tankers). In Umm Qasr hospital, UNICEF reports a troubling increase of cases of diarrohea: 50 cases for the first five days of April, compared with 38 cases last year for the whole of the month of April.
A 12 trucks UNICEF convoy carrying 120,000 liters of potable water in 5,500 jerry cans from Ahwaz, in Iran, reached to Al-Faw on 18th April.
Thi-Qar - The UNICEF assessment in Nassriyah, carried out on 19 April, reveals that the power supply is limited, and the Water Treatment Plants are running on generators for only 6 hours per day. Also, there are limited stocks of water treatment chemicals and spare parts and tools were looted.
The sketchy information available mainly from the coalition regarding other governorates (Muthanna, Kerbala, Najaf, and Babylon) indicates power and water supply were in need of urgent attention.
The three northern governorates - The water distribution services in the northern governorates have not been affected by the conflict. On 6 April, the power supply from Mosul to Dahuk was disrupted, and water facilities are now receiving power from the 29MW power plant. This has led to rationing of electricity, thus affecting water production. On 14 April the local authorities managed to reconnect Dahuk to the national grid for 9 hours, and are working to ensure continuous supply. Initial increased pressure on water services owing to some displacements, particularly in/around Dahuk, has dissipated with the return of most IDPs who were in camps and public buildings to their homes.
3. Response since outbreak of hostilities
Access to affected populations remains the key constraint to assessment of needs, and to developing a more complete strategy to address priority needs in the sector. To overcome current constraints to planning and implementing a sector wide strategy, agencies are attempting to meet the most pressing needs to which they have access, and means to respond.
Immediate strategy
The UNICEF-led water co-ordination unit has developed a sector strategy to guide agency emergency responses in the current situation. Key components:
- Conduct assessment of the watsan situation
in the most affected governorates4
- Respond to the immediate needs through
water tankering, involving local communities.
- Repairing damaged back up generators
at water and sewage facilities.
- Repairing and installing watsan equipment as soon as security is granted and according to the existing needs5.
Baghdad
- Working around the constraints of insecurity, ICRC has continued to deliver water to hospitals and communities, installing bladder tanks and operating water purification units at health care services. ICRC has also undertaken repairs and maintenance to back up generators and water storage facilities serving hospitals and orphanages. UNICEF national staff have assisted with repairs of generators at sewage pumping stations, and supported local authorities for emergency maintenance of Al Kharkh water treatment plant. UNICEF stocks of chlorine tablets were also pre-positioned for Baghdad Water Authorities and provided fuel for backup generators at water treatment plants. UNDP distributed 1 million jerry cans to the local population for water collection and storage. By mid April ICRC engineers and technicians started repairing damaged pipes at Sabaa Nissan water station, which provides water for the Rusafa area east of the river Tigris and at the Qanat raw water-pumping station, which serves densely populated neighborhoods in the north of the city. ICRC continued also tankering potable water to areas not connected to the mains.
Lower South - Iraqi water engineers and ICRC managed to restart the main water pumping facility serving Basrah city. All backup generators are now operational and this facility can reach 50% of the population (1.5 million). After looting occurred in Basrah, however, there are no details of the working condition of the pumping station.
UNICEF is carrying out water tankering to the needy areas from Kuwait on a daily basis6, taking an average of 20 tankers per day to Safwan, Umm Khalil, Umm Qasr and Al Zubair. Water is also being tinkered to Basrah city. UNICEF to ICRC supplied 55 water bladders (5,000 litres - enough for 205 persons per day) and chlorine tablets for distribution to hospitals and feeding centres. It now appears that between UNICEF, ICRC, NGO and Coalition efforts immediate needs of Basrah in water supply are now being met.
The new water pipeline constructed by the Kuwait government and the coalition forces is now operational. Considerable work will be required to make the pipeline viable. UNICEF has been requested to take over the management of this water pipeline, in order to avoid abuse by the local water tankers, who were charging villagers for the supply.
Coalition forces have been tankering water to communities living in areas under their controls. Data on the supply are not available.
The three northern governorates - Prior to the hostilities, under OFFP arrangements, UNICEF implemented semi-urban and rural water projects, while UNOPS was responsible for the rehabilitation of facilities in the three major towns. Interventions included installation of equipment; network rehabilitation, training of specialized personnel and hygiene education. Unlike the center/south, OFFP in Northern Iraq has a cash component, which has facilitated project implementation. UNOPS, UNICEF, three local NGOS in collaboration with the local authorities are addressing water and sanitation needs of the IDPs in camps and in villages, including through water tankering, installation of water and sanitation services in camps and distribution of soap, chlorine tablets, water containers, and sanitary towels.
Footnotes:
1 This constraint resulting from the legal framework established by UNSCR 986 affected all sectors.
2 The Tigris TDS varies between 280mg/l where the river crosses border with Turkey at Zakho and 1,500 mg/l at Amara. In the Euphrates, TDS variations are even greater, ranging from 600mg/l in Al Qaim at the border of Syria to 3,00mg/l at Nassriyah.
3 Where power is available plant efficiency averages 65%.
4 The assessment results will be shared with all humanitarian partners of the watsan sector. DART team assessments to inform its approach, and that of partner organisations (available at HIC website - www.agoodplacetostart.org)
5 UNICEF has shipped most pre-positioned supplies from Amman to Kuwait for quick response.
6 UNICEF has rented 43 water tankers, 3 f 37,000-litre and 40 of 28,000-liter capacity.