ReliefWeb

Introduction

Since tightening internal and external borders and signing the March 2016 EU-Turkey Agreement, European governments have heralded their success in reducing the number of refugees and other migrants arriving in Greece from Turkey. 1 However, the same policies that have reduced migration flows have simultaneously driven protection concerns for those still on the move, who rely more heavily on people smugglers to reach their destinations undetected.
While it is important to recognise that people smuggling and trafficking in persons are distinct concepts, they overlap significantly in practice, particularly in the context of mixed migration.2 When refugees and other migrants are forced to use smugglers to take irregular, covert and more expensive routes to reach their destinations, they are simultaneously exposed to higher risks of exploitation, which can result in situations of trafficking.3 Moreover, pushing refugees and other migrants further underground exacerbates the challenge of distinguishing traffickers from victims, and smugglers from people on the move.4 In turn, humanitarian and protection actors struggle to access those in need of assistance, while law enforcement agencies lean towards blanket criminalisation of all involved, including those who may have been exploited themselves.5 In the absence of adequate safe, regular and legal migration pathways from the Middle East to Europe, smuggling is likely to continue, making it essential to mitigate the risk of people forced to move irregularly becoming exposed to exploitation and trafficking.
This briefing paper analyses the relationship between smuggling, exploitation and trafficking in the context of mixed migration in the Middle East and Europe. Firstly, it outlines both the distinctions between and interrelatedness of these concepts, particularly in the context of crisis-driven displacement and migration. Secondly, it examines the impact of the conflict and displacement crises in Syria and Iraq on exploitation and trafficking in the Middle East region.
Thirdly, the paper analyses how exploitation and trafficking along mixed migration routes to Europe have evolved, particularly since 2015. The paper concludes with recommendations for policy and further research. It is the fourth briefing paper in a series of studies produced by the Mixed Migration Platform (MMP) examining specific issues pertinent to mixed migration to, from and within the Middle East.

Key messages

-Trafficking and smuggling are often mistakenly conflated concepts, which can be misleading. In practice, however, the distinction is not so rigid, as smugglers resort to more coercive and exploitative methods to facilitate irregular movement.

• Exploitation and trafficking in the Middle East pre-dates the Syria crisis, but conflict and displacement increase risks of exploitation for vulnerable groups.

• Restricted access to safety and economic opportunities has pushed vulnerable people on the move into the hands of smugglers, increasing their risk of exploitation.